Caregivers' experiences of accessing HIV Early Infant Diagnosis (EID) services and its barriers and facilitators, India.

BACKGROUND: India has rolled out Early Infant Diagnosis (EID) program for HIV infection in all states. EID program consists of testing of Infants exposed to HIV periodically over 18 months of age which is a multi-step complex testing cascade. Caregivers represent the primary beneficiary of EID program i.e., infants exposed to HIV and face multiple challenges to access EID services. As part of national EID program outcome assessment study, this study narrates caregivers' perspectives on barriers and facilitators to access and utilize EID services. METHODS: The study was conducted in 31 integrated counselling and testing centres (ICTCs) located in 11 high burden HIV states. A total of 66 in-depth interviews were conducted with caregivers' of infants enrolled in EID program. Thematic analysis was carried out to help identify themes underlying barriers and facilitators to access EID services and utilization from caregivers' perspectives. RESULTS: The stigma and discrimination prevalent in society about HIV remains a key demand side (caregiver-level) barrier. Non-disclosure or selective disclosure of HIV status led to missed or delayed EID tests and delayed HIV diagnosis and initiation of Anti-Retroviral Therapy (ART) for infants exposed to HIV. On supply side (health system-level), accessibility of healthcare facility with EID services was reported as a key barrier. The distance, time and cost were key concerns. Many caregivers faced difficulties to remember the details of complex EID test schedule and relied on a phone call from ICTC counsellor for next due EID test. Delayed EID test results and lack of communication of test results to caregiver were reported as primary barriers for completing the EID test cascade. DISCUSSION: The study reports caregiver-level and health system-level barriers and facilitators for access to EID services from the caregivers' perspectives. While, decentralisation and single window approaches can improve the access, timely communication of test results to the caregiver also need to be built in with appropriate use of technology. A holistic intervention including PLHIV support networks and the peer-led support mechanisms would be useful to address societal factors. CONCLUSION: The study findings have high significance for developing program implementation strategies to improve access and to build right-based and patient-centred EID services.

Assessment of levels and trends of HIV infections among different subgroup populations of Gujarat State - Prioritization of the districts.

Background: In India, HIV prevalence varies by region and high-risk groups. General population rates have decreased in high prevalence states through HIV Sentinel Surveillance among pregnant women, while low-moderate prevalence states show variable trends. Gujarat, in western India, has mixed HIV prevalence according to 2017 Sentinel Surveillance data. Objectives: To study the level and trend of HIV positivity among pregnant women and high-risk groups (HRGs) across different districts of the state of Gujarat from year 2012-13 to 2016-17. To review the possible determinants of the HIV epidemic across the selected districts in the state of Gujarat. Materials and Methods: Data from the National AIDS Control Organization (NACO) spanning 2012-17 was analyzed for HIV trends in Gujarat. This included combined HIV testing data from pregnant women at Integrated and Counseling Testing Centers, blood unit testing data from selected districts, and HIV testing among high-risk populations through Targeted Intervention sites. Results: HIV cases in Kheda district declined post-2013-14 among pregnant women (0.38% to 0.21% in 2016-17), and in general ICTC clients (5.53% to 0.264% in 2017-18). MSM seropositivity dropped from 1.15% (2014-15) to 0.74% (2016-17), FSWs from 0.7% (2014-15) to 0.29% (2015-16). Contrastingly, blood donors exhibited an increasing trend, rising from 0.15% (2012-13) to 0.24% (2016-17). In Mehsana, ANC mother seropositivity rose to 0.6% (2013-14), fell to 0.32% (2015-16), and rose again to 0.48% (2016-17). General ICTC clients declined from 1.2% (2012-13) to 0.53% (2016-17). FSWs had 0.25% seropositivity (2015-16), while MSM saw a drop from 0.44% (2014-15) to 0.23% (2016-17). Blood donors' trend was inconsistent. Sabarkantha's pregnant women seropositivity dipped from 0.59% (2012-13) to 0.20% (2014-15), rising to 0.25% (2017-18). General ICTC client seropositivity decreased from 5.34% (2012-13) to 1.17% (2017-18). Conclusion: While declines in HIV prevalence are evident among certain groups such as pregnant women and general ICTC clients, there are fluctuations in seropositivity among high-risk populations like MSM, FSWs, and blood donors. These insights emphasize the need for targeted interventions and ongoing monitoring to effectively address the evolving HIV landscape in these districts.

A protocol for feasibility of plasma based GeneXpert platform and Dried Blood Spot (DBS) based Abbott platform for HIV-1 viral load testing among the people living with HIV attending ART centers in India.

BACKGROUND: HIV-1 Viral load (VL) measures efficiency of the antiretroviral therapy (ART) after treatment initiation and helps to diagnose virological failures at an early stage. Current VL assays require sophisticated laboratory facilities. As well as there are other challenges pertaining to insufficient laboratory access, cold-chain management and sample transportation. Hence the number of HIV-1 VL testing laboratories is inadequate in the resource limited settings. The revised national tuberculosis elimination programme (NTEP) in India has developed a vast network of point of care (PoC) testing facilities for diagnosis of tuberculosis and several GeneXpert platforms are functional under this programme. Both the GeneXpert HIV-1 assay and HIV-1 Abbott real time assay are comparable and GeneXpert HIV-1 assay can be used as PoC for HIV-1 Viral load testing. Also, the dried blood spot (DBS) as a sample type has been considered as a good option for HIV-1 VL testing in hard to reach areas. This protocol is therefore developed to assess the feasibility of integrating HIV-1 VL testing among people living with HIV (PLHIV) attending ART centres using the two public health models under the current programme: 1. HIV-1 VL testing using GeneXpert platform and plasma as a sample type, and 2. HIV-1 VL testing using Abbott m2000 platform and DBS as a sample type. METHODS: This ethically approved feasibility study will be implemented at two moderate to high burden ART centres where VL testing facility is not available in the town. Under Model-1, arrangements will be made to carry out VL testing on the adjacent GeneXpert facility and under Model-2, DBS will be prepared on site and couriered to identified viral load testing laboratories. In order to assess the feasibility, data will be collected on pretested questionnaire pertaining to number of samples tested for VL testing, number of samples tested for tuberculosis (TB) diagnosis and the turnaround time (TAT). In-depth interviews will be conducted among the service providers at ART centre and different laboratories for addressing any issues regarding the model implementation. RESULTS: The proportion of PLHIV tested for VL at ART centres, total TAT for both models including TAT for sample transportation, sample testing and receipt of results as well as proportion of sample rejections and reasons for the same, correlation coefficient between DBS based and plasma based VL testing will be estimated using various statistical tools. CONCLUSION: If found promising, these public health approaches will be helpful for the policy makers and program implementation in scaling up HIV-1 viral load testing within India.

Access, timeliness and retention for HIV testing under early infant diagnosis (EID) program, India.

Early Infant Diagnosis of HIV infection services are crucial for managing the perinatally acquired HIV infection. Assessing the performance of the EID services and its underlying determinants is important for the National AIDS Control Program, India. The objectives of this study were to find out access to HIV testing, the timeliness of the testing cascade, and the proportion of HIV exposed infants who are followed up to 18 months for a definitive diagnosis of HIV. The study design was a mixed method. A total of 11 states accounting for 80% of HIV-positive pregnant women were selected. Program records from a total of 62 Integrated counselling and testing centres (ICTCs) served as the source of information. The qualitative component included interviews of program managers at the state and district level, service providers at the ICTC level, and caregivers of HIV exposed infants. In the sampled 62 ICTCs, 78% of the HIV exposed infants had at least one HIV test. Of the infants who had HIV tests, 50% had at first sample collected by 8 weeks of age. The median turnaround time from sample collection to DNA PCR testing was 36 (IQR 19-70) days and that to next sample collection in case of detection of virus in the first sample was 66 (IQR 55-116) days. At 18 months of age, 544 (62%) HIV exposed infants were retained in the EID testing cascade. A total of 30 infants were diagnosed with HIV at a median age of 421 (IQR 149-650) days. More than three fourth of the HIV exposed infants had access to early infant diagnosis (EID) services. Both demand and supply-side factors contribute to access, timeliness and retention and there is a need to address these factors.

Determinants of Turn-Around-Time for Early Infant Diagnosis of HIV Testing: Retrospective Analysis of National Level PCR Testing Data.

India has been implementing one of the biggest Early Infant Diagnosis (EID) of HIV intervention globally. The turn-around-time (TAT) for EID test is one of the major factors for success of the program. This study was to assess the turnaround time and its determinants. It is a mixed methods study with quantitative analysis of retrospective data (2013-2016) collected from all the 7 Early Infant Diagnosis testing laboratories (called as regional reference laboratories or RRLs) in India and qualitative component that can help explain the determinants of turn-around-time. The retrospective national level data available from the RRLs was analyzed to measure the turn-around-time from the receipt of samples to the dispatch of results and to understand the determinants for the same. The 3 components transport time, testing time, and dispatch time were also calculated. Transport time was analyzed state-wise and the testing time RRL wise to understand disparities, if any. Qualitative interviews with the RRL officials were conducted to understand the underlying determinants of TAT. The Median turn-around-time ranged between 29 and 53 days over the 4 years. Transport time was significantly higher for states without RRL (42 days) than those with RRL (27 days). Testing time varied from RRL to RRL and was associated with incomplete forms, inadequate samples, kits logistics, staff turnover, staff training, and instrument related issues. The TAT is high and can be potentially reduced with interventions, such as decentralization of RRLs; courier systems for sample transport; and ensuring adequate resources at the RRL level.

Loss to follow-up of HIV-exposed infants for confirmatory HIV test under Early Infant Diagnosis program in India: analysis of national-level data from reference laboratories.

BACKGROUND: Early Infant Diagnosis was launched in India in 2010 and its effect on the diagnosis of HIV-exposed infants needs to be assessed. The present study was done to find out the median age at DBS sample collection for early infant diagnosis and its trend over years, the median age at diagnosis of HIV among the HIV-exposed infants with DNA PCR tests, and the proportion of infants who completed testing cascades after detection of HIV-1 in a sample. METHODS: DNA PCR data (from 2013 to 2017) maintained at all regional reference laboratories in India was collated with each infant identified by a unique code. Cohort analysis of the infant data was used to find the median age at sample collection and diagnosis. The outcomes of testing in each cascade and the overall outcomes of testing for infants were prepared. RESULTS: The median age at sample collection for the four years combined at all India level was 60 days (48-110 days). The median age at diagnosis of HIV was 285 days (174-418 days). HIV-1 was detected in samples of 1897 (6.3%) infants out of 30,216 infants who had a DNA PCR test, out of whom 1070 (56.4%) completed the testing cascade and the rest were lost to follow-up. CONCLUSION: The data highlights delay in diagnosis; both due to delay in sample collection and turn-around-times. Loss to follow-up of HIV-exposed infants with virus detection is a significant concern to the Early Infant Diagnosis and tracking systems need to be strengthened.

Detection of Immunoglobulin M and Immunoglobulin G Antibodies Against Orientia tsutsugamushi for Scrub Typhus Diagnosis and Serosurvey in Endemic Regions.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the regional cutoff of optical density (OD) values for immuno-globulin M (IgM) antibodies against Orientia tsutsugamushi in serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) for clinical diagnosis of scrub typhus and immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies in serum for sero-epidemiology in Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh, India. METHODS: We used data from a serological investigation of acute encephalitis syndrome patients (n=407) during the 2016 outbreak in Gorakhpur, India to determine the cutoff for OD values for IgM antibodies, and from community-based serosurveys (n=1991) to estimate the cutoff for OD values for IgG antibodies. RESULTS: We determined regionally relevant cutoff for OD values of 0.76 for IgM antibodies in serum and 0.22 in cerebrospinal fluid for scrub typhus diagnosis. For serosurveys, IgG antibody cutoff was 1.5. CONCLUSION: We have proposed locally relevant cutoffs for scrub typhus endemic regions, which may be useful for correctly classifying infected population.

Seroprevalence & seroincidence of Orientia tsutsugamushi infection in Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh, India: A community-based serosurvey during lean (April-May) & epidemic (October-November) periods for acute encephalitis syndrome.

Background & objectives: In India, acute encephalitis syndrome (AES) cases are frequently reported from Gorakhpur district in Uttar Pradesh. Scrub typhus is one of the predominant aetiological agents for these cases. In order to delineate the extent of the background of scrub typhus seroprevalence and the associated risk factors at community level, serosurveys during both lean and epidemic periods (phase 1 and phase 2, respectively) of AES outbreaks were conducted in this region. Methods: Two community-based serosurveys were conducted during lean (April-May 2016) and epidemic AES (October-November 2016) periods. A total of 1085 and 906 individuals were enrolled during lean and epidemic AES periods, respectively, from different villages reporting recent AES cases. Scrub typhus-seronegative individuals (n=254) during the lean period were tested again during the epidemic period to estimate the incidence of scrub typhus. Results: The seroprevalence of Orientia tsutsugamushi during AES epidemic period [immunoglobulin (Ig) IgG: 70.8%, IgM: 4.4%] was high as compared to that of lean AES period (IgG: 50.6%, P <0.001; IgM: 3.4%). The factors independently associated with O. tsutsugamushi positivity during lean AES period were female gender, illiteracy, not wearing footwear, not taking bath after work whereas increasing age, close contact with animals, source of drinking water and open-air defecation emerged as additional risk factors during the epidemic AES season. IgM positivity was significantly higher among febrile individuals compared to those without fever (7.7 vs. 3.5%, P=0.006). The seroincidence for O. tsutsugamushi was 19.7 per cent, and the subclinical infection rate was 54 per cent. Interpretation & conclusions: The community-based surveys identified endemicity of O. tsutsugamushi and the associated risk factors in Gorakhpur region. The findings will be helpful for planning appropriate interventional strategies to control scrub typhus.

Seroprevalence of spotted fever group and typhus group rickettsiae in individuals with acute febrile illness from Gorakhpur, India.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to estimate the seroprevalence of spotted fever group (SFG) and typhus group (TG) rickettsiae among individuals with acute febrile illness (AFI) in the scrub typhus endemic district of Gorakhpur in India. This district is one of the worst affected by annual seasonal acute encephalitis syndrome (AES) outbreaks. METHODS: Antibodies against SFG and TG rickettsiae and the associated risk factors were determined in 294 individuals presenting with an AFI, encountered during a community-based survey conducted during the AES outbreak period October-November 2016. RESULTS: Respective IgM and IgG seropositivity was 13.6% and 36.7% for SFG, and 7.1% and 15.3% for TG. SFG IgM positivity was significantly higher among females, while IgG positivity was significantly higher among individuals ≥45 years of age. IgM and IgG seropositivity for TG rickettsiae were significantly higher in individuals involved in outdoor activities and housewives, but did not differ according to age group, sex, or educational status. CONCLUSION: The study results present serological evidence of SFG and TG rickettsiosis, in addition to scrub typhus, among individuals with AFI in Gorakhpur region and indicate the need to explore their roles as potential causes of AES in the region.

Discordant HIV DNA PCR results among infants diagnosed with HIV infection and initiated on ART: a case series.

This case series reports three infants diagnosed with HIV-1 infection using DNA polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing. The three children were initiated on antiretroviral therapy (ART) at ten, four and six months of age. Their serological tests at 18 months of age were negative for HIV-1. The first child was discontinued from ART. The other two children were HIV-negative after 18 months, but were continued on ART. Such seroreversion may be either due to viral suppression or false-positive DNA PCR results. There is a need to develop guidelines to address such discordant cases.

Study of occupational stress as a risk factor for various morbidities among policemen.

Police work is widely considered to be among the most stressful occupations. There is increased prevalence of cardiovascular diseases risk factors and type 2 diabetes among policemen in many countries. There is limited data on health status of policemen in India. Hence a cross-sectional study was conducted during the period April 2007 to September 2007 at three police stations in Rahata taluka of Ahmednagar district. Study was done to assess the level of stress and source of stress among policemen and to study the stress as a risk factor for hypertension, diabetes, obesity and depression. All available 90 policemen were interviewed and their occupational stress was assessed by occupational stress index. Clinical examination and necessary investigations were done. Depression among them was diagnosed with the help of Hamilton depression rating scale. Majority of policemen (88.89%) were having moderate level of stress. Role overload and responsibility for person were moderately stress producing factors among all ranks. Stress score was significantly high among overweight (137), diabetes (142), hypertensive (137) and depressed (118) policemen. Thus occupational stress is the risk factor for development of obesity, diabetes, hypertension and depression.